Use of Imitation Training for Targeting Grammar: A Narrative Review.

Purpose The purpose of this narrative review was to examine the evidence for imitation training for targeting grammar in children with developmental language disorder. Method Studies investigating imitation training were compiled from two databases-PsycINFO and Linguistics and Language Behavior Abstracts-as well as from reference lists of several books and articles reviewing language therapy. Results Twenty-one studies were reviewed. We summarized the demographic and methodological characteristics of the included studies. We identified substantial differences in the implementation of imitation training across the studies and noted a lack of studies considering how those differences might affect therapy outcome. Studies showed a rapid increase in the production of grammatical targets during imitation training activities, higher performance relative to a control group that did not receive any therapy, and generalization to untrained exemplars. However, the studies did not unequivocally link the increased performance to the imitation training therapy. Studies also showed limited generalization to conversational speech. Conversationally based therapy resulted in faster or higher usage in conversational speech, while imitation training resulted in faster immediate gains in usage during therapy trials. Conclusion We believe that imitation training can continue to be a useful tool in a speech-language pathologist's toolbox, but with suggested modifications. Specifically, we suggest use of imitation training as a means for rapidly achieving production of previously absent grammatical targets. However, we do not recommend sole or long-term use of imitation training for working on grammar. Further research is needed to refine our use of the procedure.

Eliciting the Language Sample for Developmental Sentence Scoring: A Comparison of Play With Toys and Elicited Picture Description.

Purpose: This study investigated whether language samples elicited during play and description of pictured events would yield the same results for developmental sentence scoring (DSS). Method: Two language samples were elicited from 58 three-year-olds. One sample was elicited during play with a parent, and the other sample was elicited by an examiner asking children to talk about pictured events in response to elicitation questions. Results: DSS scores were not significantly different between the play and event description samples. However, sentence points were significantly higher for the play sample than for the event description sample. Although there was a correlation between sample types for both DSS and sentence points, the correlation for DSS (r = .52) was below an acceptable level, and the correlation for sentence points (r = .71) was at a minimally acceptable level. Agreement between sample types for pass-fail decisions on the DSS scores using the 10th percentile cutoff recommended by Lee (1974) was only moderate (78%). Conclusion: The current study shows that type of language samples could affect DSS and sentence point scores of 3-year-olds and, hence, the passing and failing decisions for their performance on DSS.

Percent Grammatical Responses as a General Outcome Measure: Initial Validity.

Purpose: This report investigated the validity of using percent grammatical responses (PGR) as a measure for assessing grammaticality. To establish construct validity, we computed the correlation of PGR with another measure of grammar skills and with an unrelated skill area. To establish concurrent validity for PGR, we computed the correlation of PGR with a previously validated measure of grammaticality, percent grammatical utterances (PGU), and examined the extent to which PGR and PGU agreed upon pass/fail decisions for children. Method: Participants included 79 3-year-olds from mostly middle socioeconomic status homes. Language samples were elicited by asking children to describe 15 pictures in response to 4 questions per picture. To calculate PGU, children's responses to all 4 questions were segmented into communication units, and each communication unit was evaluated for grammatical errors. To calculate PGR, the entire response to just the first question was evaluated for grammatical errors. Results: PGR scores significantly correlated with a standardized test of grammar (r = .70), but not with a measure of vocabulary (i.e., type-token ratio; r = .11). In addition, PGR scores were significantly correlated with PGU scores (r = .88). Agreement between PGR and PGU was 92% for pass decisions and 94% for fail decisions. Conclusions: The current study establishes the construct validity of PGR as a measure of grammar and supports the use of PGR as a measure to assess grammaticality.

Sample size for measuring grammaticality in preschool children from picture-elicited language samples.

PURPOSE: The purpose of this study was to investigate whether a shorter language sample elicited with fewer pictures (i.e., 7) would yield a percent grammatical utterances (PGU) score similar to that computed from a longer language sample elicited with 15 pictures for 3-year-old children. METHOD: Language samples were elicited by asking forty 3-year-old children with varying language skills to talk about pictures in response to prompts. PGU scores were computed for each of two 7-picture sets and for the full set of 15 pictures. RESULTS: PGU scores for the two 7-picture sets did not differ significantly from, and were highly correlated with, PGU scores for the full set and with each other. Agreement for making pass-fail decisions between each 7-picture set and the full set and between the two 7-picture sets ranged from 80% to 100%. CONCLUSION: The current study suggests that the PGU measure is robust enough that it can be computed on the basis of 7, at least in 3-year-old children whose language samples were elicited using similar procedures.

Differentiating children with and without language impairment based on grammaticality.

PURPOSE: This study compared the diagnostic accuracy of a general grammaticality measure (i.e., percentage grammatical utterance; PGU) to 2 less comprehensive measures of grammaticality--a measure that excluded utterances without a subject and/or main verb (i.e., percentage sentence point; PSP) and a measure that looked only at verb tense errors (i.e., percentage verb tense usage; PVT)--in differentiating children with and without language impairment. METHOD: Two groups of 3-year-olds, 17 with language impairment and 17 with typical language, participated in a picture description task. PGU, PSP, and PVT were computed. Receiver operating characteristic curve analyses were conducted to determine the best cutoff value for each measure. RESULTS: All 3 measures demonstrated a sensitivity of 100%. PGU showed a specificity of 88%, and both PSP and PVT showed a specificity of 82%. In addition, PGU showed a larger positive likelihood ratio than the other 2 measures. CONCLUSION: PGU, PSP, and PVT were all sensitive to language impairment. However, PGU was less likely than PSP and PVT to misclassify children with typical language. The resultant diagnostic accuracy makes PGU an appropriate measure to use to screen for language impairment.

How grammatical are 3-year-olds?

PURPOSE: This study investigated the level of grammatical accuracy in typically developing 3-year-olds and the types of errors they produce. METHOD: Twenty-two 3-year-olds participated in a picture description task. The percentage of grammatical utterances was computed and error types were analyzed. RESULTS: The mean level of grammatical accuracy in typical 3-year-olds was ∼71%, with a wide range of variability. The current study revealed a variety of error types produced by 3-year-olds, most of which were produced by fewer than 5 children. The pattern observed for most of the children was to produce a scattering of errors with no more than a few of any 1 error type. CONCLUSION: The level of grammatical accuracy in 3-year-olds was skewed toward the high end. Although tense marking errors were the most frequent error type, they accounted for only 1/3 of the errors produced by 3-year-olds. A more general measure of grammaticality that considers additional aspects of language might, therefore, be useful in assessing language at this age.

Using standardized tests to inventory consonant and vowel production: a comparison of 11 tests of articulation and phonology.

PURPOSE: This report considered the validity of making conclusions about a child's phonetic inventory (the sounds a child can and cannot produce spontaneously without a prior model or other stimulation) based on the data from standardized single-word tests of articulation or phonology. METHOD: We evaluated the opportunities for production of word-initial consonants, word-final consonants, and vowels within the words included on 11 tests. Only words that met specific phonetic criteria (termed phonetically controlled words) were counted as opportunities for each consonant or vowel. RESULTS: None of the tests provided sufficient coverage of consonants or vowels for establishing a phonetic inventory and making conclusions about the segments that a child can and cannot produce. CONCLUSION: Use of the data from a single standardized test of articulation or phonology would not be sufficient for completely inventorying a child's consonant and vowel production and selecting targets for therapy. It is recommended that clinicians supplement test data by probing production in additional phonetically controlled words.

Noun phrase elaboration in children's spoken stories.

PURPOSE: One feature of literate language, noun phrase elaboration, was examined in the oral fictional narratives of school-aged children. METHOD: Two narratives were elicited from 5-, 8- and 11-year-old children, 1 in response to a picture sequence and 1 in response to a single picture. Noun phrases were categorized into 4 types. RESULTS: Simple designating noun phrases were produced by all children at age 5, simple descriptive noun phrases by all children at age 8, and noun phrases with postmodification by all children at age 11. All noun phrase types were produced by more children in object than in subject position and in the single picture than in the picture sequence context. CONCLUSION: There are important developmental changes in noun phrase elaboration in the elementary school years as children learn to manage narrative contexts. Even within picture tasks, variations in visual depiction can affect the use of elaborated noun phrases (ENPs), with more descriptive language more likely to occur in narratives based on a single picture fantasy context than on a realistic picture sequence context. Performance expectations for types of ENPs within these contexts are provided. These findings will be useful to school clinicians in evaluating and working on narrative language within the elementary school period.

The index of narrative microstructure: a clinical tool for analyzing school-age children's narrative performances.

PURPOSE: This research was conducted to develop a clinical tool-the Index of Narrative Microstructure (INMIS)-that would parsimoniously account for important microstructural aspects of narrative production for school-age children. The study provides field test age- and grade-based INMIS values to aid clinicians in making normative judgments about microstructural aspects of pupils' narrative performance. METHOD: Narrative samples using a single-picture elicitation context were collected from 250 children age 5-12 years and then transcribed and segmented into T-units. A T-unit consists of a single main clause and any dependent constituents. The narrative transcripts were then coded and analyzed to document a comprehensive set of microstructural indices. RESULTS: Factor analysis indicated that narrative microstructure consisted of 2 moderately related factors. The Productivity factor primarily comprised measures of word output, lexical diversity, and T-unit output. The Complexity factor comprised measures of syntactic organization, with mean length of T-units in words and proportion of complex T-units loading most strongly. Principal components analysis was used to provide a linear combination of 8 variables to approximate the 2 factors. Formulas for calculating a student's performance on the 2 factors using 8 narrative measures are provided. CONCLUSIONS: This study provided a method for professionals to calculate INMIS scores for narrative Productivity and Complexity for comparison against field test data for age (5- to 12-year-old) or grade (kindergarten to Grade 6) groupings. INMIS scores complement other tools in evaluating a child's narrative performance specifically and language abilities more generally.

The development of expressive elaboration in fictional narratives.

PURPOSE: This study analyzed the development of expressive elaboration in fictional narratives for school-age children. METHOD: The analysis was derived from high-point analysis, but it was tailored to capture the artful aspects of fictional storytelling. Narratives were elicited with a short picture sequence of a likely life event from 293 children whose ages ranged from 5 to 12 years. RESULTS: Results showed a significant age effect for expressive elaboration with narrative length controlled. For three age clusters (5-6 years, 7-9 years, and 10-12 years), the 13 types of expressive elaboration showed diverse patterns of acquisition in terms of presence, frequency, and developmental change. Appendages (introducer, abstract, theme, coda, ender) were lowest in both presence and frequency, and increased in presence with age. Orientations (names, relations, personality) were more common and increased in presence with age. Evaluations (modifiers, expressions, repetition, internal states, dialogue) were most frequent and showed age changes in both presence and frequency. CLINICAL IMPLICATIONS: This study provides an additional window on narrative competence. The analysis and results can guide narrative assessment and intervention.